Financial Management – Exam

1. Time value of money (15 points) You have just turned 30 years old, have just received your MBA and have accepted your first job. Now, you must decide how much money to put in your retirement plan. The plan works as follows. Every dollar in the plan earns 7% per year. You cannot make withdrawals until you retire on your 65th birthday. After that point, you can make withdrawals as you see fit. You decide that you will plan to live to 100 and work until you turn 65. You estimate that to live comfortably in retirement, you will need $100,000 per year starting at the end of the first year of retirement and ending on your 100th birthday.You will contribute the same amount to the plan at the end of every year that your work. How much do you need to contribute each year to fund your retirement? 2. Stock pricing (20 points) Colgate-Palmolive Co. has just paid an annual dividend of $0. 96. Analysts are predicting an 11% per year growth rate in earnings over the next five years. After that, Colgate’s earnings are expected to grow at the current industry average of 5. 2% per year. If Colgate’s equity cost of capital is 8. 5% per year and its dividend payout ratio remains constant, what price does the dividend-discount model predict Colgate should sell for? 3.Bond pricing (15 points) Consider a 30-year bond with a 10% coupon rate (annual payments) and a $1000 face value. 1. What is the initial price of this bond if it has a 5% yield to maturity? (5 points) 2. What will the price be immediately before and after the first coupon is paid (10 points) 4. NPV (25 points) A proposed cost savings device has an installed cost of $480,000. The device will be depreciated straight-line to zero over its five year life. The required initial net working capital investment is $35,000 (which will be recovered at the end of the project), the marginal tax rate is 35%, and the discount rate is 12%.The device has an estimated year 5 salvage value of $80,000. What level of preta x cost savings do we require for this project to be profitable? 5. IRR (25 points) Your firm is contemplating the purchase of a new $850,000 computer based order entry system. The system will be depreciated straight line to zero over its five-year life. It will be worth $150,000 at the end of that time. You will save $350,000 before taxes per year in order processing costs and you will be able to reduce working capital by $125,000. If the tax rate is 35%, what is the IRR for this project?

Fast Food Driven Society Essay

In a recent documentary film I’ve seen called, â€Å"Super-Size Me,† it was stated that in the past 20-25 years, obesity levels in America have doubled. Why you may wonder? Many factors contribute to the way we live in our society today, but the main reason for obesity levels being so high is the fast food industry and its effects on everyone it comes in contact with. Anyone who has ever had junk food in their life know its addicting features. Seeing it everywhere you go whether you are at a grocery store, fast food restaurant, or on TV doesn’t help stop the urges in anyone’s case. Fast food is convenient, cheap, and is what the average American family would choose to eat. Obesity is an ongoing problem in the United States today, and if it cannot be stopped, this problem could potentially be passed down from generation to generation. The reason America has allowed this to happen is because of the way society portrays how to live and eat in this world, how Americans have adapted in a way where they heavily rely on fast food for convenience purposes, and the individual’s lack of effort in living a healthy lifestyle. Every woman in America once in their lives has seen or bought a magazine. What do you see on the cover? A skinny, beautiful model or celebrity, and a tagline on how to lose more weight or how to eat healthier in order for you to look more like the picture. Everywhere you go society portrays a certain way woman should look that is acceptable in this world. I strongly believe that one of the reasons that obesity has struck America so negatively is because society has pushed the woman in this country over the edge on how they ‘should’ look. â€Å"For many women, compulsive eating and being fat have become one way to avoid being marketed or seen as the ideal woman: My fat says ‘screw you’ to all who want me to be the perfect mom, sweetheart, and maid. Take me for who I am, not for who I am supposed to be† (Orbach, pg. 452). This quote comes from the article, â€Å"Fat is a Feminist Issue,† and it heavily relates to why obesity is still an ongoing issue in the United States. Susie Orbach strongly explains how fat expresses a rebellion against how women feel powerless because of all of the pressure to look and even act a certain way. Society has even changed the way women should look over and over again throughout the years (pg. 452). This in my opinion puts more pressure on the women because they are constantly changing their image and even their body in order to fit in. This topic alone, has a huge impact on why a lot of people are overweight in the world. Now a days, people want to be what they want and not what society wants. Since society hasn’t given woman and everyone else a break on what they expect from them, obesity has increased and a rebellion on body image is its result. If society would stop stressing how to look and act, people might want to start to do things for themselves and not for the ‘betterment’ of society. In my experience, I can honestly say that being a women in society today is difficult. Yes I do eat what I want when I want, but I do watch my body image. Half of the reason is because it makes me feel better as a person when I look and eat healthy, but the other half is because I know society would qualify me as someone who would fit in. You could say that society has gotten to me, but I do feel great when I eat healthy and when I look healthy. In my nutrition class, I learned that junk food is very low in satiation value, this means that people don’t feel as full when eating them, which tends to lead to overeating. These two factors relate to why people choose to go to a fast food restaurant. Americans don’t realize the negative effects it has on their mind and body. Not only is that a factor, but the taste also plays a huge part too. A lot of great tasting foods are bad for you, which just happens to be the disappointing truth that many people disregard. All anyone wants is to find good food that is affordable in this world right? That is what makes fast food so convenient!! In the article, â€Å"Don’t Blame the Eater,† David Zinczenko makes a good point about fast food. â€Å"Lunch and dinner for me, was a daily choice between McDonald’s, Taco Bell, Kentucky Fried Chicken or Pizza Hut. Then as now, these were the only available options for an American kid to get an affordable meal† (pg. 391-392). Everything he stated is true for the average American family, why wouldn’t you stop at a fast food restaurant if you are tight on money and time. When I was a kid, sports was a big part of my life†¦but time and money was also tight in my family because my two younger sisters also played sports. We stopped for fast food whenever was convenient for us on and off the road. At the time, it was almost like I was being treated when we stopped for fast food. Little did I know the only reason we got fast food was because it was affordable and reliable. Even now to this day, it is hard for me not to stop at a fast food restaurant every once in a while. I don’t go as much as I used to, but it is still convenient and it always will be. Just like Zinczenko was saying, whether we like it or not, fast food surrounds us and lures us into its traps. We have the choice to escape it or embrace it. The individual has this decision alone. Society plays its parts in luring, but it is ultimately your own decision in the end. In the article, â€Å"Food as Thought: Resisting the Moralization of Eating,† Mary Maxfield heavily stresses how it is the individual’s ultimate decision on what to eat and how much of it to eat. I could not agree more with her article, even though society does its job in persuading, it is the individual who is left with the decision because it is their body. Maxfield states, â€Å"†¦. what a person eats [rarely] takes primacy over how they eat it†¦.. in essence, we can eat as we always have- which includes eating for emotional and social reasons and still survive or even thrive† (pg. 445). What she is saying is that no matter what social interactions stand in someone’s way, they are the ones who decide what and how much to eat. You must trust yourself, trust your body and meet your own needs (Maxfield, pg. 446). Personally, there are days where I know I need to cut down on the junk food and focus on drinking water and eating foods with nutritional value. That is because I have the motivation and drive to do so. Many Americans do not have this motivation and drive. This is what is increasing the obesity levels in America. People do not know what is too much, and do not know when to stop. So in return, they are putting themselves more at risk for the chronic diseases that obesity has to offer. In the end, the individual has the power to decide what is best for them. If everyone started to make healthy life decisions, obesity levels could slowly start to decrease, and the world could have a more restored environment. We need to start by educating our children about the smart and healthy life alternatives they can make and continue to educate their parents as well. In turn, we can decrease the many factors that have led our country to where it is today†¦. a fast food driven, obese and lazy society.

Food and Street Foods Essay

Bulacan was officially called â€Å"Bulacan Province†, is a first class province of the Republic of the Philippines located in the Central Luzon Region (Region 3) in the island of Luzon, North of Manila (the nation’s capital), and part of the Metro Luzon Urban Beltway Super Region. Bulacan pries itself for its rich historical heritage. Bulacan has fast become an ideal tourist destination, owing to its vital role in Philippine history, and its rich heritage in culture and the arts. The province is popularly known for its historical sites; nostalgic old houses and churches; idyllic ecological attractions; religious attractions; colorful and enchanting festivals; swimming and various themed attractions; and a wide selection of elegant native crafts and sumptuous delicacies. It is also home to numerous resorts, hotels, restaurants, and other recreational facilities. (Wikipedia) The briskness of Street foods in Bulacan can be measured by the long queue of consumers’ everyday in the food outlets in strategic places where street foods like: â€Å"lugaw† or Rice Porridge, goto, mami, fish balls, barbecued banana, salted peanuts and chicken pops. (Toledo, 1988) Street Foods is a â€Å"Survival Meals†, maybe because it satisfies the gustatory sense for a temporary period of time. (Soledad Leynes, 1986) In such case, eating away from home due to the changes in occupation and activities created a demand for cooked meals and snacks at a cheaper and affordable price that are served quickly. Dual career, parents and small families who really have no time to prepare their meals at home resort to street foods for convenience. These people seem not to care for the food source whether it comes from the legitimate food merchants or from the informal sector, otherwise called black market. (Soledad Leynes, 1986) Street foods, whether snacks or meals are affordable and always available, which are very popular among the low income households to a large extent and increasingly a daily fare among the middle income groups. Households with working mothers are afforded ready to eat meals without the burden of cooking at home. Street food caters to the needs of the urban poor population by making food readily available and at low cost. Thus, street food vending is a traditional activity which can be considered a coping mechanism of the urban poor. Street foods are ready-to-eat foods and beverages prepared and/or sold by vendors or hawkers especially in the streets and other similar places. They represent a significant part of urban food consumption for millions of low-and-middle-income consumers, in urban areas on a daily basis. Street foods may be the least expensive and most accessible means of obtaining a nutritionally balanced meal outside the home for many low income people, provided that the consumer is informed and able to choose the proper combination of foods. (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations)

Managerial Accounting for Decision Making Essay

Managerial Accounting for Decision Making - Essay Example Horngren and Sundem, 1990. P- 4’ (MACINTOSH & QUATTRONE. 2010) Management accounting system is a part of the larger control system in the organization used to measure, monitor and motivate the managers and employees in the organization and also to coordinate with the other components of the organization like machine, information, material and technologies etc. For a robust control system it is necessary for the entire control mechanism to support each other, management accounting system can play a great part in coordinating and controlling all the activities in the organization. (MACINTOSH & QUATTRONE. 2010) Management accounting system not only helps in planning and coordinating activities of the organization but also plays a vital role in performance measurement and decision making by providing information for managers to make timely decisions, to be effective and efficient in the execution of the business and to improve overall performance of the organization. ... between financial and management accounting for which one thinks that they both perform the same function like both are used in the reporting purpose and helps managers in analyzing the company’s performance and take action for control. But it’s important to mark the differences and benefits that management accounting can solely provide to the organization. Financial accounting is used at the end of the financial year when auditors come for the audit. They work on the historical data that how company performed during the year and prepare their report for the shareholders confirming company’s accounts give a true and fair view. Management accounting however is used to provide information for managers only on a continuous basis that is it doesn’t wait for the financial year to end. It is forward looking and focuses on information that managers can use to make decisions for the future. Therefore if company has issues and loopholes in the control and informati on systems it can be corrected right on time. Management accounting system in short makes the managers adopt a more forward looking approach for the business. (NEEDLES, POWERS & CROSSON .2010) Part A. 2. Identify from the case study the reasons why Tania thinks that Nosystem Limited should install a management accounting system Analyzing the case given it could be argued that Nosystem needs to install management accounting system. As Tania emphasized that Nosystem is a growing organization now there is a growing need for the planning, control and coordinating activities. By installing management accounting system Nosystem can plan its activities at all levels that is strategic, tactical and operational levels to achieve the ultimate goal and objective of the company mentioned in the mission statement. Further

Ratio Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Ratio Analysis - Essay Example They are of interest to the creditors to determine the firm’s ability to meet its short term financial obligations. So far the liquidity ratio of the company indicates that the liquid assets of the company are higher compared to its own average, meaning that the company as assets that can be easily be converted to cash. The indication of good liquidity ratio reduces the worry of the creditors since the business is at a position to easily pay its short term liabilities. Profitability ratios concentrate on the major areas such as asset turnover, profit margin, return on assets, and return on common shareholder’s equity. Profitability ratios are used by investors to measure the management effectiveness as shown by returns generated by the profit margin (Weygandt et al, 2010, p 723). The company’s ROE has been registering a slight decrease, from 17% in 2009 to 15% in 2011, meaning that the company is earning less returns on its capital. As calculated the highest profit margin is 4.97% in 2011 which is low, meaning that the business is not that profitable. The solvency ratio of the company is based on debts to total assets and times interest earned. It is used by shareholders and potential investors to determine financial risk of the business. When calculated in 2011 debt to total assets is 23.33% which gives a healthy indication of the company’s performance. During the same year the times interest was 8.3% which backs the claims o f the company’s financial healthiness. Therefore from the solvency ratios the management can learn that the company is capable of paying back its long term obligations (Weygandt et al, 2010, p

Organisational behaviour Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Organisational behaviour - Case Study Example The employees became aware that the company paid low salary, overworked employees, and fired them without valid reason. This paper will present a case analysis of the situation facing the Nordstrom Company. Evidently, there is a critical problem in the Nordstrom Company. Over the years, the Nordstrom Company has exhibited a poor organizational culture. More specifically, the company does not have rewarding compensation schemes for the employees who have ensured that the company is successful. According to the case study, the employees face the compulsion of putting more hours without any overtime. In other cases, employees work for many days without having an opportunity to rest. The pay they receive does not match with the number of hours they put in as well as the increasing demands of their jobs. Many of the employees feel that their job is continually in jeopardy. They are constantly in fear of being laid off (Aquinas, 2006). For example, Ms. Lucas highlights that working at Nordstrom Company translated into working for free. The increasing demands of the ability to produce thank-you letters and other customer service books took so much time, but the pay was minimal. As a result, s he developed ulcers because of the continued stress from her job. Her case is not unique because many other employees described in the case study have highlighted that the company did not reward them as expected. Therefore, the poor organizational culture has contributed to limited levels of employee satisfaction and increased employee turnover (Fox, 2006). Although the company is highly committed to delivering exemplary customer service, it does not promote employee satisfaction and loyalty because many workers operate under stress. The accusations filed against the company indicate that it has poor labor practices. One of the potential solutions for the company is to hire a consultant who can investigate

Customer Service Representative Policy Assignment

Customer Service Representative Policy - Assignment Example Customer care representatives should ensure they offer clients beyond their anticipations if they intend to retain them in the business and continue to enjoy greater returns in the business. Therefore, customer care representatives should establish close ties with clients in order to promote customer loyalty to the company. Managers should establish a policy of providing training to the customer care representatives in order to ensure excellent services and products to their clients. The customer service representatives in the hospitality industry should promote unity at work in order to ensure excellent delivery of services to their clients (Kahle & Riley 2004). This is because when employees work together as a team, they will be able to solve any issue that may be affecting their clients, and also instil confidence in the visitors hence promoting customer loyalty. The business policy should ensure that all needs of the clients are giving priority to anything else. The management should train their customer care staff to take into consideration all the issues raised by the clients no matter how petty they seem to be. This will not only make clients feel appreciated but will also make them get more than what they anticipated. Failure to provide clients with products and services that suit their specifications will cause them to seek the same elsewhere (Kitchen & Pelsmacker 2004). In addition, customer care representatives should ensure that clients perceive the o rganization to be what it claims to be. They should inquire from the clients about the nature of services and products they expect to get from the company and also ask them to suggest what they would like to be included in the products and services in order to satisfy their needs. The customer service policy should state the objectives of the customer service. The customer care should offer excellent services to their clients and respond to their requests promptly (Barry 2007). The policy should offer an opportunity for training the customer care representatives and define the approach for rewarding them based on the effort they put to serve the clients.  

Canadian government launched an active electronic immigration Essay

Canadian government launched an active electronic immigration recruitment system called Express Entry - Essay Example This is particularly in view of the fact that the local labor market needs need to be met under the various programs that guide the immigration recruitment system. The Canadian Express Entry system works by ranking potential immigrants and then selecting the top ranked individuals to apply for a visa. The first step is for the potential immigrants eligible for any of the economic immigration systems to apply. After application the potential immigrants are ranked based on values such as age, education level, workplace experience, language, marital status, and even the core human capital factors that can be identifiable from the individual. These factors account for a maximum of around 500 points. Additionally, there are an extra 100 points for the ease by which the potential immigrant can transfer the skills. Finally, the system allocates around 600 points for any pre-existing employment offer from a Canadian organization or even an appointment from a Canadian institution. Overall, this means that a candidate can get a maximum of about 1200 points, and the system then invites the highest ranking individuals to apply for permanent residency. From the above, it can be noted that a major advantage of this system is that it measures eligibility on account of a candidate’s skills and experience. This is highly advantageous as it ensures that the immigrants can easily fit into the corporate system and eventually improve the economy through their input (Simpson et al. 2015, pp. 141). Moreover, there is no cap on the number of candidates to be admitted since it bases the selection on merit. This results in only the best being allowed through the system. On the other hand, a major disadvantage is that the system is somewhat discriminatory in nature, only allowing the highest ranking individuals the ability to apply (Simpson et al. 2015, pp. 199). While the previous system was based on a first come first processed basis, the express entry system treats each

Feministic justice and revenge upon patriarchal misogynists Essay

Feministic justice and revenge upon patriarchal misogynists - Essay Example This essay demonstrates that in GDT and BQ acts of feministic revenge are conducted as a means of claiming justice and reclamation of power from patriarchal characters who have abused their position of power. Conversely, in EH justice is only found through the legal system. Also, in GDT and BQ the heroines escape/are free at the end of the films, this implies, either rightly or wrongly that their actions were justified in the eyes of their respective societies and cultures. In EH, however, two of the main characters are killed by males, one by a boy and justice was only served for Yeter’s death in Germany. The films all demonstrate recognition of patriarchal ills conducted against women in each of the societies, and the women’s rights to seek justice. They do this in different manners, however, according to the cultural norms of the films’ characters. In GDT the woman is equal in all ways and can seek a violent revenge for herself. In BQ she can be strong and vio lent but still requires the support of men; she is not entirely equal. In EH women only have equality in the eyes of the law.  This essay demonstrates that in GDT and BQ acts of feministic revenge are conducted as a means of claiming justice and reclamation of power from patriarchal characters who have abused their position of power. Conversely, in EH justice is only found through the legal system. Also, in GDT and BQ the heroines escape/are free at the end of the films, this implies, either rightly or wrongly that their actions were justified in the eyes of their respective societies and cultures. In EH, however, two of the main characters are killed by males, one by a boy and justice was only served for Yeter’s death in Germany. The films all demonstrate recognition of patriarchal ills conducted against women in each of the societies, and the women’s rights to seek justice. They do this in different manners, however, according to the cultural norms of the filmsâ₠¬â„¢ characters. In GDT the woman is equal in all ways and can seek a violent revenge for herself. In BQ she can be strong and violent but still requires the support of men; she is not entirely equal. In EH women only have equality in the eyes of the law.   The feministic themes of revenge in GDT and BQ do not, however, serve to progress any culture.   There is no message that violence is not an acceptable cultural practice in any of the respective countries and the means of justice portrayed in these two films is not a common one in the real world. The actions of the real-life â€Å"Bandit Queen† are an exception rather than the norm. Justice through legal action in EH is a more accurate portrayal. In spite of this, it is apparent that the cold murder and lack of justice for Lotte and the abilities of men to threaten and control Yeter show that Turkish cultural attitudes to gender equality remain far behind those of European societies. In a world of increasing gender equ ality, however, the portrayal of gender violence against men as opposed to women is merely a dramatized portrayal of gender equality.

Pearl Harbor Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Pearl Harbor - Research Paper Example From the research it can be comprehended that the attack on Pearl Harbor will forever spark imagination borne in mind; 4,000 Americans were wounded or killed. Much of how Pearl Harbor started bothers many since; there are various things that occurred before the attack. It is documented that, on September 1940, the United States imposed restriction on Japan towards prohibiting exporting of Scrap iron, steel, and fuel. On April 1941, the Japanese signed the neutrality treaty with Soviet Union to prevent the attack if they were to go to war with the United States or Britain. Toward the end of July 1941, the United States, Netherlands, and Britain froze Japanese resources. Eventually, Japan could not purchase oil, which in turn, crippled its army as well as, its air forces. Japan seized the opportunity to take Southeast Asia’s resources but, all was in vain. Typically, the U.S demanded that Japan withdraws from Indonesia and China, though this could be settled with a token not to take more territory. In essence, the Japanese military was requested to device the war pan and also get the oil embargo lifted precisely. In this context, the U.S knew that the attack was imminent bearing in mind; their relationship with the Japanese Military was broken. Prior to the attack, warnings had been sent from Washington, though it arrived late. Before the attack, Japanese planes were spotted, but it was implicated to be American’ Flights. ... Toward the end of July 1941, the United States, Netherlands, and Britain froze Japanese resources. Eventually, Japan could not purchase oil, which in turn, crippled its army as well as, its air forces. Japan seized the opportunity to take Southeast Asia’s resources but, all was in vain. Typically, the U.S demanded that Japan withdraws from Indonesia and China, though this could be settled with a token not to take more territory. In essence, the Japanese military was requested to device the war pan and also get the oil embargo lifted precisely. In this context, the U.S knew that the attack was imminent bearing in mind; their relationship with the Japanese Military was broken. Prior to the attack, warnings had been sent from Washington, though it arrived late. Before the attack, Japanese planes were spotted, but it was implicated to be American’ Flights. On December 7th 1941, it was a peaceful Sunday morning on the Hawaiian island. The first wave of the Japanese airplanes left six aircraft carriers with struck Pearl Harbor before 8 AM local time. After two waves of terror lasting, the disaster had occurred. Over 3, 500 Americans were badly damaged by 18 ships, and a lot of resources were destroyed. The attack lasted approximately 2 hours, from 7.55 A.M to 10.45 A.M. The first Wave struck Pearl Harbor at 7.55 .A.M, and the second one around 8.50 A.M. With no doubt; the attack on Pearl Harbor was military strike organized by the Japanese against the U.S. WHERE IT STARTED The attack on Pearl Harbor started at Hawaii, on a Sunday morning. Many American servicemen were either eating breakfast or still in pajama when the attack began. This stands out that,

Facing the Hard Facts of Life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Facing the Hard Facts of Life - Essay Example Born in a well-to-do urban business class family, life had always been a cakewalk for me. A cakewalk, till the day the â€Å"hard facts† of life were thrust on me! I remember having a carefree childhood, cushioned in the warm, caring love of my parents and elder sister. Being the younger child, and a chubby one with dimples to go with my naturally good looks, I was the apple of everyone’s eye. Parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles, teachers, seniors, friends, and later girlfriends, everyone simply loved me. Life was just beautiful. In school, I was good in studies, sports and extra curricular activities. Dad’s business was thriving and we were used to the best in life. We lived in a palatial house, went to the best school in town, dined in fine restaurants on weekends with dad’s friends and had a chauffeur driven limousine to drop my sister and me to school every day. Once in a couple of years, we would have a foreign holiday. What more could one ask for in life? At least, that is what I thought when I entered my teens.

Creating a computer system Essay Example for Free

Creating a computer system Essay 1. 1 Introduction Wooten Basset Rugby Club, are a rugby club in the Swindon area, whom play 15 a side rugby union. They put out a numbers of teams each week ranging from junior levels, senior teams and womens rugby. Of my concern is the U-16s, whom would like to computerise a number of tasks and have a reference for relevant data including player and parent information. In any particular season there will be between 20 and 30 players at the club. These players are trained by the head coach and around three other coaches all of whom are made up of parents of the players. The head coach is responsible for much of the current administrative work. 1. 2 Current System Currently all tasks for the club are carried out manually. For example when organising a match against a rival team a letter is written specifically for each player. With as many as 30 players at the club, this is tiring and tedious work. Data is currently stored in files kept at the head coachs house. This system of holding information has become unreliable as over the history of the team players have moved on or changed their details. When this occurs due to time constraints, addresses for example are often added to rather than modified creating two distinct addresses complicating matters when important letters need to be sent. In the past when players have left their file has not been removed leaving large amounts of useless information. All of this complicates matters when searching for data making the process longer and increasingly unreliable. Among the squad of players, each player has his own specific needs. For example different players require different training methods such as fitness or tactics. With many players and few coaching staff it becomes difficult to organise. Currently this is organised through memory which is difficult due to the above reasons. The current system has no scope for evaluating players from teams the club faces. No data is kept on players from other teams like their scoring or disciplinary records. They can therefore not assess before a fixture which players are a danger and tactics suffer. Scoring and disciplinary data is stored on paper kept in files. This data is again not well managed and prone to being lost making analysing a players progress somewhere between difficult and impossible. Also they are unable to see which players are the top scorers or most ill disciplined. Money management is also a problem. Fees used to pay math officials are deducted form the fees paid by players. This is organised by the coaches, however often players miss this payment and the referees payment is short. Yet with at least 15 players playing in every match records of owes money are not kept and this information is simply forgotten. 1. 3 Interview Summary In order to create this system it was important that I conduct an interview with one of the end users for the system. This will give a good outline of the requirements for the system. The interview was with the head coach whom will be the predominant user of the system. From the interview this is an outline of what the new system will have to achieve: Â  Produce template letters for a number of issues. These letters include Match details, which will tell players about a match its date, venue and other relevant information. Invitation letter to other clubs inviting them to a match. Player and parent data. Store contact details about players and parents. Â  Statistics. Store statistics on players including points scored, tries and appearances. Â  Team information. Store details on rival teams such as contact details. Fixtures. Store fixture information including scores, dates and venues. Â  Ability to see reports on players from the club. Â  An ability to track membership payments. The system must indicate whether a players has paid his membership for that season. Â  Create leagues of the clubs leading scorers and those with the worst disciplinary records. Â  Store data about what type of training each player is on. For example some players may have fitness training or others forwards training. Monitor finances for each fixture. For each fixture a player has to pay a fee of i 2. Other important points taken from the interview: Â  System must be as automated as possible as user wants system to save him time. Simple user interface. Several of the coaches whom will use the system have very little knowledge of computers and will struggle with a complicated system. Â  System will be run from head coachs lap top computer and therefore not need any network capabilities. Head coach has copies of Microsoft Access already stored on his computer. IT experience consists only of use of Microsoft applications. Â  Data on fixtures and statistics only to be kept for one season at a time. After this period data will be deleted and new record will be kept. Â  Hold data relating to tournament and determine the clubs progress in these tournaments. 1. 4 Data Requirements From the interview it has become apparent that I will need to store a considerable amount of data. I have divided this data into the following groups: Players, Fixtures, Rivals, Rival Players, Players-Fixtures and Rival Players-Fixtures. A primary key will be used in every case to uniquely identify each record, these are marked by these symbols, and . PLAYERS deals with data relating to players such as membership and contact details: Membership Number A unique code used to identify each player. Each Membership code is made up of three numbers and a letter. The letter represents the age group, as this letter only deals with one age group each membership code will have the letter, E. For example, 001E Name Christian and Surname only Parent Store parents name for contact details. Address1 Store first line of a players address. Address2 Store second line of a players address where applicable. Postcode Training-What type of training the player is on. User will only be able to select from these values: Fitness, Backs, Forwards or General. Telephone Number Membership Paid Whether a player has paid membership fees for current year or not. FIXTURES handles data revolving each fixture played or to be played: Fixture Code Identifies each fixture uniquely as some fixture may be against the same team. Team Code Determines which team is to be played or has been played Team Score Score for Wooten Bassett, null if not played. Rival Score Score for rival, null if not played. Tournament Code Foreign key which identifies which tournament a fixture belongs to. Friendly fixtures will be determined by a specific code. Date Venue Select from either home or away. Round Determines which round of the competition, for example first round or semi final. RIVALS holds data on teams played by the rugby club, this includes contact details: Team Code Each team will be assigned a unique in case of two teams having the same name. Team Name Name of each rival team. Telephone Address1 First line of each teams address. Address2 Second line of each teams address if applicable. City Postcode Directions Description of how to reach rival club. PLAYERS-FIXTURES relates to the actions of players in each fixture, this includes scores and disciplinary information: Membership Number Used to identify player for which record is stored. Fixture Code Identifies which fixture record relates to. Tries Number of tries scored by a particular player in each fixture. Penalties All penalty kicks converted by a player in a fixture. Drop Kicks All drop kicks scored by a player in a fixture. Disciplinary Whether a player was disciplined in a fixture and what level of action, a yellow card for example. Fee Owed -The amount paid will be displayed from. TOURNAMENT holds data relating to tournaments the clubs plays in: Tournament Code Unique code which identifies each tournament. Winner Eventual winner of tournament. 1. 5 Entity Relationship Diagram This diagram of how data will be kept in the new system. The Players-Fixtures data store will link Players and Fixtures together. It will store data relating to what a particular player does in each game. Each record will be identified by using a players membership code and the corresponding fixture code, these two foreign keys will create a composite key. Each player may have played in many fixtures and therefore have many records in Players-Fixtures. This creates a one to many relationship between, Players and Players-Fixtures. Similarly many records in Players-Fixtures may relate to one fixture and so a one to many relationship exists between Fixtures and Players-Fixtures. The Rival Players-Fixtures data store is similar to Players-Fixtures, however it stores data about rival players as opposed to players for Wooten Bassett rugby club. Each record will be uniquely identified using the foreign keys of rival player code to determine which player, and fixture code to determine the fixture. Again a one to many relationship exists between Fixtures and Rival Players-Fixtures as one fixture may have many related records in Rival Players-Fixtures. Each Rival Player may have many records in Rival Players-Fixtures as they have played in many fixtures, a one to many relationship will exist here. Wooten Bassett will face many different rival clubs with many different Rival Players. Therefore Rivals will store data about all rival clubs and each record will be uniquely identified by team code. Rival Players will store data will store data about all the players who play for these clubs will be identified by the rival player code. To determine which player plays for which club Rival Players will have the foreign key Team code. This means many Rival Players can play for one club, again a one to many relationship will exist here. Each fixture will be against one of the teams detailed in Rivals. In order to identify which team is being played the foreign key, team code from Rivals will be used. One Rival may play in many fixtures creating a one to many relationship from Rivals to Fixtures. Tournament holds data relating to competitive fixtures. Therefore one tournament will have many records in fixtures, and again a one to many relationship is present. 1. 6 Data Flow Diagrams 2 Design 2. 1 System Design. The system will be divided into five entities described in Analysis. These are Players, Rivals, Fixtures, Players-Fixtures and Tournament. 2. 2 Attribute Design Following are description of all the attributes to be stored in the system: 2. 3 Form Design In order for the user to interact with the system, it must be presented in a user friendly interface. Within Access this is done using forms and reports, each form should allow the user to easily understand the information and be able to perform sufficient actions such as adding or deleting data. Following are the forms required by the system: 1. frmFixtures. This form will deal with all the actions relating the handling of data with fixtures. Here the user will be able to add, alter or delete any records from the Fixtures table. For example if a new fixture has been organised then the user can use the Add Fixture button to add a fixture to the schedule. Also changes to the date for example can be made. In order to maintain the consistency of data validation is being used. The FixtureCode attribute is updated automatically as an auto number preventing the user from making mistakes. Also a TeamCode will be selected from a combo box so a user cannot enter a team that does not exist. Also only two values will be able to be entered into the Home/Away attribute, home or away. To simplify the users navigation of the system a combo box at the top of the form allows the user to select any existing record quickly. 2. frmPlayers The Players form works on a similar principle to the Fixtures form. There are button to add and delete Player records and there is also a combo box to allow the user to navigate through the system. For validation the training attribute uses a combo box to ensure the user enters the correct value and an input mask controls the MembershipNumber, so that data is entered in the appropriate format. 3. frmRivals Again the Rivals form works in a similar fashion to Players and Fixtures. Buttons on the right control adding and deleting functions and a combo box is used for navigation. Validation is ensured by using an auto number data type to automatically update the TeamCode attribute. 4. frmTournament The tournament form works exactly the same as the previous forms, with add and delete buttons clearly labelled and a combo box for navigation. The TournamentCode attribute does not require input as it is an auto number ensuring validation. 5. frmFixture Statistics This form is directly different form the previous forms. In this form a user can manipulate data in the Players-Fixtures entity. The user can view specific fixtures through a combo box, when a fixture is selected it will open a sub form containing all the data about the players whom played in that match. Here new data can be added about a fixture or incorrect data can be corrected. The FixtureCode and MembershipNumber attributes will be controlled by a combo box, eliminating user error and the consistency of the data. 2. 4 Query Design For the system to perform the function required of it queries are used to extract the precise data from the database.

Effects of Atmospheric Aerosols on Human Health

Effects of Atmospheric Aerosols on Human Health Abstract: A highly Sensitive (LOD; 0.04-0.4 ng/ml) method is developed for detection and quantification of acidic compounds (C3 -C10) containing mono and dicarboxylic acids on GC-MS. These compounds (C3 -C10) existed in trace amount, as secondary organic aerosols i.e. important constituents of Aerosols. Membrane extraction technique was utilized for selective enrichment (1-4300 times) of target compounds. Good repeatability (RSD% ≠¤ 10%) from selective organic phase (10% TOPO in DHE) was achieved with three phase HF-LPME. Aerosols containing samples, after Ultrasonic Assisted extraction were detected and quantified Through GC-MS. Effective derivatization of each target compound was performed with BSTFA reagent. Gas Chromatography, having capillary column and interfaced with mass spectrometry was used for separation, detection and quantification of target compounds. Method Development and Application -hollow fiber Supported liquid membrane extraction of Fatty acids (C3-C10) containing mono and dicarboxylic acids and Detection of aerosols Samples after ultrasonic assisted extraction. 1. Introduction: Impact of Atmospheric aerosols on human health and effect on radioactive stability in Earth’s atmosphere is getting importance now a days and this phenomenon has been well understood. [1]. Atmospheric aerosols can harm respiratory and cardiovascular system of human. Impact of Secondary organic aerosols as biogenic and anthropogenic antecedent is identified (Adams and sinfold, 2002) [1, 17]. Low molecular dicarboxylic acids (C3-C9) are also vital tracers of SOA [2]. Short chain fatty acids are found as secondary organic aerosols which are also supposed to derive from long chain fatty acids [1]. Importance of organic aerosol has been well established now a days and carboxylic acids are of great interest for environmental studies [1]. Several studies and mechanisms were proposed to understand the production of these SOA precursors [1]. Short chain carboxylic acids are found extensively in troposphere [2]. Secondary organic aerosols (SOA) are formed in the atmosphere by gas particles conversions. Organic matter present in aerosol contains more than 90% of troposphere’s aerosols [5, 15]. Dicarboxylic acids found in nature as polymeric compounds such as suberin and cutin [3]. Short chain dicarboxylic acids are found in vegetables [Siddiqui, 1989] and in soil containing micro organisms of durum wheat [4]. Dicarboxylic acids are found in plant oils which have greater interest for cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries [6]. Short chain dicarboxylic acids having aliphatic chain possess strong cyclotoxicity and antineoplastic activities [18]. Many analytical techniques are used to determine the composition of SOA so keeping in view these techniques new method for determination of fatty acids (common in SOA) has been developed. Membrane extraction is used in this method due to its increasing importance for high selectivity and high enrichment factor [24]. Dicarboxylic acids formed of bio oxidation of fatty acids so these are considered as metabolic part of fatty acid [42]. Dicarboxylic acids and their derivatives can be used to make polymers and their condensation with diols in solution produces high molecular weight polyester [39]. Additionally these dicarboxylic acids use less temperature in the reaction for the preparation of polyesters [39]. 1.1. Analytes Description: Properties (physical, chemical, etc.) of Compounds (C3-C10) containing mono and dicarboxylic acids are discussed in section; 1.1.1-1.1.12. These compounds (C3-C10) are the target analytes in this diploma project. These target analytes are extracted through Liquid phase micro extraction and detected by GC-MS system. Fig. 1.1-1.12 represents structures of target analytes (section; 1.1.1-1.1.12). 1.1.1- Adipic Acid Adipic acid is a product of lipid per oxidation. Adipic acid does not undergo hydrolysis in the environment perhaps due to the lack of hydrolysable functional groups (Harris 1990) [5]. 1.1.2- Malonic Acid: Malonic Acid is a metabolite of plants and tissues and Malonyle-CoA [28]. Malonic Acid is an intermediate for preparation of fatty acids from plants and other tissues [7]. Malonic acid is also present in aerosols [8]. Malonic acid is an important constituent of short chain fatty acids [8]. Malonic acid present in beet rots as a Calcium salt [42]. 1.1.3- Succinic Acid: Succinic acid is found in atmosphere as water soluble compound and as a compound of Secondary organic aerosols [29]. Succinic acid is a solid exists as crystals, anciently called spirit of amber. Succinic acid is an important intermediate in citric acid cycle which is very important constituent of living organism [42]. 1.1.4- Glutaric acid: Glutaric acid is found as SOA in aerosols [8]. Glutaric acid is sparingly soluble in water [41], can be used to prepare a plasticizer for polyester [41]. 1.1.5- Pimelic Acid: Pimelic acid is a last dicarboxylic acid relative to carbon number which has IUPAC name. Derivatives of Pimelic acid are used for biosynthesis of amino acid typically lysine [41]. Pimelic acid is produced, when Nitric acid is heated with Oleic acid as a secondary sublimation product which is not crystallized [20]. 1.1.6-Suberic Acid: Suberic acid is produced from suberine [8]. Suberic acid can also be obtained by vigorous reaction condition of natural oil with nitric acid [8]. 1.1.7-Azelaic Acid: Azelaic acid is an important constituent of secondary organic aerosols because it produces short chain fatty acids upon photo oxidation and also because it can be produced during oxidation of unsaturated acid that is found in Oleic acid [11]. 1.1.8- Cis-pinonic Acid: Cis-pinonic acid is also produced in atmosphere by photo oxidation of ÃŽ ±-pinene in the existence of Ozone [30]. 1.1.9- Pinic Acid: Pinic acid is derivative of ÃŽ ±-pinene. Pinic acid can be generated by photo oxidation of ÃŽ ±-pinene with Ozone as given in this chemical reaction; (C10H16 + 5/3 O3 -> C9H14O4 + HCHO). Pinic acid is present in a crystalline form used to prepare plasticizers [30]. 1.1.10- 4-Hydroxybenzoic Acid 4-Hydroxy benzoic acid is exists as crystals. It is used to derive parabens and can be used as antioxidant [41]. 1.1.11-Phthalic Acid: Phthalic acid is an aromatic dicarboxylic acid it is found as white crystalline state in pure form [41]. Phthalic acid is found abundantly in atmosphere and it has toxic properties. Aromatic acids are generally emitted through anthropogenic sources like reminiscent of solvent evaporation and Automobile exhaust [31]. 1.1.12-Syringic Acid. Syringic acid is found as humic substance in environment [40]. 1.2. Detection of Ultrasonic Assisted Extraction samples(UAE): A detection procedure by GC-MS is established with reference standard injections and UAE samples. A theoretical description is given in section 1.2 for â€Å"Ultrasonic assisted extractions†. Unknown real Samples from Aerosols containing mono and dicarboxylic acids (C 3-C 10) are provided after Ultrasonic assisted extraction [34]. 1.2.1- Ultrasonic Assisted Extraction: ‘Ultrasonic’ is derived from ultrasound. Ultrasound refers to a sound that has a higher frequency than a normal human can hear. This technique is used in chemistry in several aspects and due to application in chemistry it is known as Sonochemistry [23]. Ultra Sound is used in sample preparation in analytical chemistry like extraction, filtration, dissolution and sample purification. When Ultrasonic technique is used for assistance in extraction, this assistance in extraction is called â€Å"Ultrasonic assisted extraction† (UAE) [23]. There are many advantages by using UAE because it require less organic solvents ,non destructive, less expensive and less time consuming comparative to other sample preparation techniques like soxhlet [21]. The normal range of ultrasound frequencies used in laboratory ranges from 20 KHz to 40 KHz. Use of UAE is simple. A sample solution inside a vessel in an appropriate solvent can be placed inside ultrasonic bath at desired temperature and sound waves stir the sample [20]. The mechanism of US is as â€Å"when a sound source produces a high frequency waves, sample molecules starts vibrating and shift this vibration to other molecules of sample in a longitudinal direction when gas and liquid is used as a sample, while in solid sample both longitudinal and transverse waves can be produced† [19]. When UAE is utilized it increases speed of mass transport by vibration of mechanical transport from the sample matrix through a process called â€Å"cavitation† [21]. 1.2.2- Theory of Ultrasonic Assisted extraction: There are two theoretical aspects of sonication i.e. physical and chemical aspects in sample preparation. Physical and chemical aspects are described in section (1.2.2.1-1.2.2.2), in order to understand its practical use in analytical chemistry. 1.2.2.1- Physical aspects of UAE: During Ultrasonic assisted extraction, a bubble in a liquid cannot take energy (due to US) and implodes. On the other hand due to Ultra sound in liquid extractions, the cavitational pressure is shifted relatively higher so formation of bubble is difficult [21]. Ultrasonic intensity produces cavitations in a liquid sample during extraction (UAE). Two types of US cavitation is produced known as â€Å"transient cavitation† (produce transient bubble) and â€Å"permanent cavitation† [21]. The life time of transient bubble is so short that no mass transport or diffusion of gas is possible with in a sample [21]. Transient bubble is believed to be produced at US intensity (10 W/cm2) and permanent bubble at intensity (1-3 Watt/cm2). Sonochemical effects are intense inside the bubble because energy (numerous amounts) is produced during bubble eruption and production [21]. 1.2.1.2 Chemical aspects of UAE: When US radiation strikes a water molecule it produces free radicals OH* and H* due to collapsing cavitations’ bubble which exhibits high temperature and pressure inside and also many other radicals can be produced in solution [21]. Radical OH* is believed to be more stable and can begin many new reactions while H* radical is not stable. Second Sonochemical effect is pyrolytic reactions that occur inside bubble and can degrade compounds under analysis [21, 23]. 1.3. Liquid Phase microExtraction(lpme): The application of membrane extractions in analytical chemistry has taken the intentions of analysts during recent time. The goal of utilizing membrane extraction is to achieve high enrichment, selective extraction and environmental friendly procedure [24]. Small quantity of solvent (usually in micro liters) is required comparative to old techniques of extractions (soxlet) [24]. Clean extracts are obtained and after extraction, recovered compounds are shifted to another analytical instrument like Gas chromatography or liquid chromatography directly for further quantitative analysis [24]. 1.3.1 Hollow fiber membrane extraction: Two types of membrane are used in LPME. One membrane is flat sheet porous and second membrane is polypropylene hollow fiber. In this project polypropylene hollow fiber is used as a membrane support in membrane extractions due to limited cost and to reduce carry over problems [24]. 1.3.1.1 HF-LPME Technique: When a hollow fiber is used in LPME, this technique (LPME) is called hollow fiber liquid phase micro extraction (HF- LPME). In HF- LPME technique, a hollow fiber is used containing a thin film of immobilized liquid membrane inside the pores while the fiber is dipped into an aqueous phase containing objective analytes. Target analytes can transport through the membrane into a liquid filled inside the lumen of the fiber, which is termed as accepter solution [22]. Extraction of target analytes (C3-C10) was carried through three phase HF- LPME during whole of the project. Donor solution was contained analytes in aqueous medium, a suitable organic solvent i.e. Dihexyl ether (TOPO mixture) was used in pores of hollow fiber as a stationary liquid membrane support (SLM). Accepter solution was in aqueous medium [22].Target analytes were recovered into accepter phase after evaporation of water. Acetonitrile solvent was added in dried GC vial along with derivatizing reagent. After derivatization these samples were injected into a Gas chromatographic system. 1.3.2 Basic Principle of LPME: Basic principle is same for all LPME techniques (two phase or three phase LPME), the variation is only from accepter region [24]. In three phase liquid phase micro extraction technique (HF- LPME) a donor aqueous solution is filled in a vial or flask containing sample analytes. A short piece of hollow fiber is used and accepter solution is injected inside fiber through a micro syringe after injecting accepter solution one end is closed and other end contains syringe needle. Fiber containing solutions is inserted in an appropriate organic solvent having less polarity (Dihexyl ether) to create a stationary liquid membrane (SLM). Donor solution pH is adjusted such that it can restrain the ionization of target analytes [22]. The process of three phase extraction [22] can be explained as follows in Eq 1.1. Where ‘A’ is a target analyte, ‘K1’, ‘K2’, ‘K3’ and ‘K4’ are first order extraction rate constants. In order to obtain combined distribution coefficient, at equilibrium recovery, Eq. 1.2 is derived [22]. D accepter/sample = C eq accepter / C eq sample = C Org sample/ C eq accepter =ÃŽ ± D .Korg/sample / ÃŽ ± a. Korg/accepter†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.1.2 In Eq. 1.2, C eq accepter, C eq sample and C Org sample are the concentration of analytes at equilibrium, in accepter phase, in aqueous sample phase and in organic membrane phase respectively.Here Korg/sample, Korg/accepter are the partition ratio’s between Organic phase and sample phase and between accepter phase and organic phase respectively [22]. ÃŽ ± D and ÃŽ ± a are the extractable fraction of total concentration of target analyte in sample and accepter respectively. If conditions are similar between sample and accepter, other than ionization of analytes in sample phase, from Eq. 1.2, equilibrium is independent from partition ratio of stationary liquid membrane in three phase lpme i.e. it depends mainly on ionization of analytes in sample [22]. Extraction efficiency (E) can be calculated from Eq. 1.3[22]. V sample, V accepter and V mem , in Eq. 1.3, are the volume of donor sample phase, aqueous accepter phase and organic immobilized membrane liquid phase respectively. D accepter/sample and D Org/sample are individual distribution coefficients relative to accepter phase to sample phase and Organic phase (SLM) to sample phase respectively [22]. Eq. 1.3 is derived for three phase lpme. It is evident; from the interpretation of Eq. 1.3 that efficiency is mainly controlled by individual distribution coefficients. Individual distribution ratios are directly dependent on partition coefficients, so by increasing the partition ratios efficiency can be improved [22]. Partition coefficients can be improved by properly adjusting the pH of donor and accepter and by using an appropriate organic solvent. Volume of sample and organic phase should also be kept minimum, according to Eq. 1.3 in order to develop efficiency [22]. 1.3.3-Mass transfer in LPME: Enrichment factor (Ee) for three phase LPME is given in Eq. 1.4. Ee = C accepter/C initial = V sample. E / V accepter †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1.4 In Eq. 1.4, C accepter is the concentration of target analyte, present in final stage inside accepter solution [22]. When an acidic analyte is ionized in aqueous solution, total extractable fraction of analyte (ÃŽ ±) is given in Eq. 1.5 [24]. ÃŽ ± = [AH]/ [A-][AH] = 1/[1+10(pH-pKa)] †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1.5 In the context of Eq. 1.3, the overall distribution constant (D) at equilibrium can be rearranged as given in Eq. 1.5 [24]. D = 1+10 s (pH-pKa) . KD /1 + 10 s (pH-pKa). KA †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1.6 ‘s’ is equal to 1 for acidic analytes (Eq. 1.6). ‘pKa’ is dissociation constant and pH refers to donor or accepter solution(Eq. 1.6) [24]. à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  C = ÃŽ ±D .Cs ÃŽ ±a CA.KA/KS †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1.7 Eq. 1.5-1.7 are derived from Henderson-Hasselbalch relation, in this equation ÃŽ ± represents the extractable fraction of analytes [24]. The driving force for the extraction in neutral conditions of three phase LPME is the concentration gradient (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  C) from sample to accepter [12]. The concentration gradient between two phases, between donor and accepter, is described in Eq. 1.7. K represent partition ratio of uncharged analyte between the membrane and aqueous phase. CA and Cs are the concentrations of analytes in accepter and sample phase respectively. 1.3.4 End point for extraction: Three end points are normally considered for extraction [22]. 1. Exhaustive extraction. 2. Kinetic extraction. 3. Equilibrium extraction. 1.3.4.1 Exhaustive extraction: Exhaustive end point is the specific end point (time), when all amount of analytes are exhausted (which can be practically possible) present in donor [22]. In this practical diploma work, Exhaustive end point will be applied in (LPME) extractions. Enrichment factor will increase by growing analyte concentration in accepter by the passage of time, at certain point it reaches a stable value [12]. Mass transfer between organic phase and liquid phase is dependent on concentration gradient [12]. Enrichment factor can be improved by increasing the value of ÃŽ ±D preferably close to unity and decreasing the value of ÃŽ ±A to zero. Such conditions for the ÃŽ ±D and ÃŽ ±A values are called â€Å"infinite sink† conditions, normally required for exhaustive extractions [22]. Situation close to these values can be achieved for acids by selective tuning the pKa values. For example for acidic compound if pH of accepter is adjusted, 3.3 (pH) units above than the pKa of acidic analytes this Di fference set the value of ÃŽ ±A to 0.0005, at this point accepter can capture all analytes. At this set value (ÃŽ ±A), enrichment factor increases linearly with time [12]. Peak time of enrichment factor, when other parameters are constant, can be calculated by comparison of CA maximum. CA maximum (‘CA’ is considered as time dependent) can be obtained by careful calculation of CA maximum values at a certain time, before this value starts to decrease again [12]. 1.3.5 Rate of LPME: Two parameters, govern the rate of extraction (when extraction approaches to equilibrium conditions), are membrane controlled extractions or diffusion controlled extractions [13, 24]. The maximum concentration Ee can be obtained when concentration gradient (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  C) is approaches to zero described in Eq. 1.8 [13, 24]. Ee (max) = (C a / C d) max = ÃŽ ±D/ÃŽ ±A †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1.8 In membrane controlled extractions, the rate limiting step is the diffusion of target analytes. When analytes pass through the organic phase, the mass transfer (Km) is given in Eq. 1. 9 [13, 16]. Km  µ K.D m /h m †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1.9 In Eq. 1.9; K is partition coefficient, Dm is membrane diffusion coefficient and ‘h m ‘ is the thickness of membrane [13, 16]. 1.3.6 Addition of Trioctylphosphine oxide(TOPO): Mass transfer can be improved for acidic analytes by using different concentrations (w/v) of TOPO in organic solvent typically for short chain carboxylic acids. Interaction of TOPO with polar acids in solution takes place efficiently due to hydrogen bonding [16]. 1.3.7 Trapping of Analyte in Three phase lpme[24]: Concentration enrichment of analytes in three phase LPME can be achieved by stable mass transfer through the membrane to accepter phase. Back diffusion of analytes is prevented by trapping of analytes in accepter phase. In order to achieve high enrichment of acidic analytes pH of accepter phase is fixed enough basic so that when acidic analytes reached to the accepter solution becomes charged. Analytes could not be driven back to donor. So this trapping of analytes due to pH adjustment is called ‘’direct trapping’’. For high enrichment purpose, pH of accepter is usually adjusted 3.3 pH units higher than the pKa values of acidic target analytes while extracting from acidic donor. Buffer capacity of accepter should be sufficient such that during extraction protons from acidic donor cannot be neutralized by the concentration gradient between two aqueous phases during three phase lpme [24]. 1.3.8 Selection for Organic phase: Choice of organic solvent has basic importance in method validation because this solvent directly affect partition coefficient. Organic phase solvent should have low solubility in water [22] and low volatility to prevent solvent losses during extraction process [16]. Organic phase should have high distribution coefficient, between donor to organic phase and between organic to accepter phase, to achieve high enrichment. Organic phase should have adequate affinity to the hollow fiber. Organic phase should be immobilized sufficiently to cause efficient trapping of analytes in the pores through polarity matching [22]. Mixture of organic solvents can also be used as mobile phase [16]. In this project organic solvent is either pure DHE or DHE is also mixed with different amount of TOPO (section; 1.3.6) to achieve high stability of organic phase [22, 24]. 1.3.9 Agitation of sample: Extraction kinetics can be improved by agitation. Agitation increases analyte diffusion from donor to accepter. Organic membrane solution (DHE) is very stable inside pores of the membrane. Shaking by a magnetic stirrer helps analyte transfer from donor solution to the accepter solution [17]. When Donor solution containing analytes is stirred at high speed, probability of fresh solution contact with membrane phase is enhanced [9]. In order to enhance mass transfer all membrane extractions in this project are assisted through agitation by a magnetic stirrer. A membrane extraction assembly is shown in Fig. 1.13. 1.3.10Volume of donor and acceptor solutions. Volume of donor and accepter solution is very important because sensitivity can be improved by proper volume adjustment of accepter solution. Volume of accepter solution should be minimum comparative to donor to get better sensitivity [17]. Volume of accepter solution should be enough to be injected, detected and quantified by GC or HPLC. Volume of the accepter solution should be enough to fill lumen of hollow fiber appropriately [17]. 1.3.11 Adjustment of pH. Proper adjustment of pH of donor and accepter is very important because high partition ratio can be obtained in three phase lpme by proper adjustment of donor and accepter solution [17]. According to Eq. 1.7, Efficiency can be improved by increasing concentration gradient which depends mainly on pH. In this project three phase lpme is utilized on acidic analytes (C3-C9) containing carboxylic and hydroxyl groups so in donor solution pH is adjusted slightly lower than the pKa values of analytes to suppress ionization of these analytes [17]. 1.4. Detection and quantification of Analytes: 1.4.1-GC-MS analysis: GC-MS is a powerful detection technique for environmental trace analysis due to its high sensitivity [14]. Aerosols are existed in trace level so their detection requires a sensitive device with low limit of detection. GC-MS suffers less matrix effect and is usually cost effective and highly selective [14]. Analytes are separated according to their charge to mass (m/e) ratio after passing through mass spectrometer. Scan mode is used for identification of each analyte [14]. When gaseous analytes come to mass spectrometer they are converted to their respective molecular ions. Electron ionization in mass spectrometer strikes molecules to fragments [18]. These molecular ions are specific for each analyte and sensitivity and selectivity can be improved through selected ion chromatogram (SIM) [14]. Signal to noise ratio (SNR) is improved through extracted ion chromatogram (XIC) which is selected through SIM mode [14]. SIM mode is used for qualitative and quantitative analysis [14]. Analytes (C3-C10) are polar and non volatile, so these analytes cannot be detected in pure form and separated by using Gas chromatographic column. A derivatization step is necessary to convert Analyte into volatile substances. Derivatization is made to convert carboxylic and hydroxyl functional groups to their respective ester functional group [14]. 1.5. Derivatization: Two derivatization reagents; ‘’N, O-bis(trimethylsilyl) trifluoroacetamide’’ (BSTFA) and ‘’N-(tertbutyldimethylsilyl)-N-methyltrifluoroacetamide’’ (MSTFA) are commonly used for esterification of hydroxyl and carboxylic functional groups before injecting to GC-MS system[14]. Both derivatizing reagents are applied separately and compared prior to GC-MS analysis. 1.5.1- Silylation: Analytes containing carboxylic acids (C3-C10) are introduced to GC-MS after derivatization. Carboxylic acids are converted to their respective trimethyl silyl ester (TMS derivative) by BSTFA. A nucleuphilic attack is taken place by a hetero atom to silicon atom when BSTFA reagent is used as a derivatization reagent [14]. BSTFA is found very efficient to convert hydroxyl groups to respective Silyl ester [18]. Advantage with BSTFA is that its derivative can be injected directly without purification and it can be used for very sensitive detection [18]. BSTFA is non polar and its efficiency can be improved by using BSTFA in Acetonitrile [32]. Chemical structure of BSTFA is shown in Fig [1.14] below. Due to the use of BSTFA reagent in the reaction, a common peak is appeared at m/z= 73, due to [Si(CH3)3]+ molecular ion and at m/z=145 due to [OH=Si(CH3)2]+ molecular ion . when Analytes containing dicarboxylic acids are used for MS analysis, Ion peak is appeared at m/z=147. Ion peak at m/z=147 is appeared due to the [(CH3)2Si=Si(CH3)2]+ molecular ion [18]. 2. Method: 2.1 Membrane extraction: Three phase HF- LPME method is used for extraction. Section 2.1 describes the method for three phase hollow fiber liquid phase micro extraction technique. 2.1.1 Equipment and reagents for Membrane Extraction: Hollow fiber Accurel PP polypropylene (Q3/2) is purchased from Membrana (Wuppertal, Germany). The wall thickness of membrane is 200  µm, Inner diameter 600  µm and pore size is 0.2  µm. Before extraction a 7.5 cm membrane was cut carefully with a fine cutter. After cutting membrane was washed in acetone and dried overnight. A magnetic stirrer, containing multiple stations, model (Ika-werke, Germany) was used for agitation of donor solution. Micro Syringe 50  µl (Agilent, Australia) was used to push accepter solution inside the lumen of membrane and for holding of membrane. pH meter (Mettler Toledo) was used to measure pH for donor and accepter solution. Volumetric flask (Kebo, Germany) was used for extractions (contain donor solution). Milli-Q water was obtained from Millipore gradient system (Millipore, USA). Hydrochloric acid (37%, Fluka) and Sodium hydroxide monohydrate (Fluka) were used to prepare further solutions. Dihexyl ether (97%) was purchased from Sigma Aldrich. TOPO (99%; Aldrich) was used to prepare solutions in DHE (%, w/v). 2.1.2Set up for Membrane Extraction: 2.1.2.1 Donor solution: The pH donor solution was adjusted to 2. All aqueous solutions were prepared in mill Q water and pH was adjusted by adding HCl (0.1M). All Samples were spiked in a dried 100 ml volumetric flask (Germany). This flask was then, filled up to mark with donor solution. Further 5 ml of donor solution was added in same flask in order to dip membrane inside donor solution. Total volume of donor solution was adjusted to 105 ml. A clean magnet was dropped in flask and then, this spiked solution inside the flask was allowed to stir for 30 minutes and at a fixed revolutions/min (800 rpm) of magnetic stirrer. 2.1.2.2 Accepter solution: Accepter solution was prepared in milli Q water and pH 12 was adjusted by Sodium hydroxide (0.5 M, 5 M). The accepter solution was injected inside lumen of dried membrane through a micro syringe. Specific amount of (24  µl) accepter solution was injected inside lumen of hollow fiber via a BD micro syringe. Specific volume (24  µl) of accepter solution was fixed after several adjustments, for best compatibility with a 7.5 cm hollow fiber, to achieve good repeatability and enrichment. 2.1.2.3 Membrane solvent: Membrane containing accepter solution was dipped for 15 s (Approximately) into the organic solvent (pure DHE or topo% solutions in DHE), to impregnate the fiber with organic solvent and to establish a membrane phase. The solvents, immobilized in the pores of hollow fiber were; pure DHE, 1% topo in DHE (w/v), 5% topo in DHE (w/v), 10% topo in DHE (w/v), 15% topo in DHE (w/v) and 19% topo in DHE (w/v). All solutions (topo in DHE) were prepared and mixed by manual shaking, although 15% topo in DHE and 19% topo in DHE solutions were prepared by vigorous shaking and were put inside sonicator for efficient mixing. 2.2. Sample preparations: All primary solutions were prepared in methanol. Primary solutions were prepared by transferring specific weight of analytes to a sample vial, having air tight caps. This solution was diluted with methanol to prepare a solution of concentration (100 ÃŽ ¼g/ml). Table 2.1 represents properties (physical, chemical) of analytes. A (abbreviation) name was given respective to TMS ester of each analyte, new name consists of three words only. Molecular weight (Mw), Molecular (Molec) formula, Source (chemicals were purchased from), pKa values of individual analytes (dissociates in water) and purity (as labeled on each chemical) of each analyte is listed in Table 2.1. Table. 2.1- Analytes source (purchased from)and purity. Sr. No Chemical name Abbreviation Mw Molec formula Purchased from pka. Values Purity (%) 1 Malonic Acid Mal 104.06 C3H4O4 Aldrich 2.83, 5.69 (36) 99 2 Succinic Acid Suc 118.09 C5H6O4 Fluka 4.19, 5.48 (36) 99.9 3 Glutaric Acid Glu 132.04 C5H8O4 Aldrich 4.34, 5.42 (36) 99 4 Adipic Acid Ad 146.14 C6H10O4 Fluka 4.34,5.44 (36) 99.5 5 Pimelic Acid Pim 160.17 C7H12O4 Aldrich 4.48, 5.42 (36) 98 6 Suberic Acid

Enablers and Barriers to Nuclear Medicine

Enablers and Barriers to Nuclear Medicine Introduction: Nuclear medicine has emerged because of advances in the field of nuclear technology. This is a branch of medical studies that uses a small amount of radioactive substances, for purposes of diagnosing and determining the nature of disease that an individual is suffering from. This type of medical practice is normally used for purposes of treating chronic diseases such as heart diseases, cancer, neurological and endocrine disorders, and other abnormal conditions within the body of an individual (Moniuszko Patel, 2011). This field of nuclear medicine is used by a variety of medical experts, and this includes, oncologists, radiologists, gynecologists, radiotherapists, endocrinologists, etc. There are three major types of people who are working and under the field of nuclear medicine, and they include, the nuclear physician, the nuclear medicine technologist, and the nuclear pharmacist. The nuclear physicians are responsible in diagnosing and treating a patient. Furthermore, they have th e responsibility of carrying out research in this field of nuclear technology. The technician on the other hand, works with a patient, and he or she is a specialized individual who assists the physician in diagnosing and treating a patient. The pharmacist on the other hand, involves himself in the procurement, control, and distribution of radio-pharmaceutical products (Laake, Benestad Olsen, 2007). This is an indication that this field on nuclear medicine is an independent specialty, and well organized, and hence it can cater for the needs of its patients. This paper is a proposal on the researcher to be carried out on the enablers and barriers to the practice of nuclear medicine. This paper takes a stand that in as much as there are some factors responsible for promoting the practice of nuclear medicine, there are also some barriers. Research Problem: One of the major challenges facing nuclear medicine is based on the dangers of radiation. Radiation is a very serious issue, and can have a very negative impact on the health of an individual. This includes the development of chronic diseases such as cancer, which are always difficult to treat. Furthermore, it is highly expensive to train nuclear medicine experts, and this is the reason there is a shortage of nuclear medicine practitioners in the world (Moniuszko Patel, 2011). There is also a dilemma on where to place this field of nuclear medicine. This is because there is confusion on whether to categorize nuclear medicine under the field of medicine, or to give it an independent specialty. Failure to address these concerns and issues that are brought forth in regard to nuclear technology can have an impact in limiting the emergence and growth of nuclear technology in the world. It is therefore necessary for policy formulators to come up with methods and measures that can be used for purposes of encouraging the growth and use of nuclear technology (Prekeges, 2013). One method is to encourage extensive research in this field of nuclear medicine. Furthermore, there is a need of issuing scholarships to needy but bright students, so that they may pursue a study in the field of nuclear technology. Failure to achieve these objectives would result to limiting the growth and development of the field of nuclear medicine. This would in turn increase the deaths of people, because of an increase in the number of people suffering from chronic diseases or illnesses. It is therefore necessary to address the barriers to the practice of nuclear medicine, and create more enables to the practice. Aims of the Research: This research aims at achieving the following three aims, Analyzing the enablers to the practice of nuclear medicine. Analyzing the barriers to the practice of nuclear medicine. Coming up with a solution on how to practice nuclear medicine. Objectives of the Research: To analyze the various literatures concerning nuclear medicine. To understand the various barriers to nuclear medicine. To understand the various enablers to nuclear medicine. Having an understanding of this concept of a nuclear medicine practitioner, from a primary source. Literature Review: Nuclear medicine is an important field of study, and this is basically because it helps in the treatment of chronic diseases. These diseases include diseases such as cancer, and other abnormal conditions (Feld Roo, 2003). Therefore, the practice of nuclear medicine is segmented in nature, and this includes professionals such as radiologists, cardiologists, neurologists, nephrologists, etc. Cardiology is also the largest profession in the field of nuclear technology, and this is as per the year 2013. Furthermore, nephrology is also a field nuclear medicine, and it is the largest growing field in this practice (Powsner, Palmer Powsner, 2013). The reason for the emergence cardiology as the largest field of nuclear medicine is based on the facts that there is an increase in aging population, cardiac ailments, and a preference for diagnostic procedures that are non-invasive. Cardiologists play a role in the treatment and diagnoses of these ailments (Donohoe Van Den Abbeele, 2011). Howe ver, there are a number of barriers that plays a role in affecting the efficient practice of cardiology. One major barrier to an efficient practice of this field of medicine is based on the fact that it is very expensive to train professionals in this field. Cardiologists are highly trained and experienced medical practitioners, and these skills are gained over a long period of time. This time factor and the amount of money spent in the training of a cardiologist, limits the number of people who can train and work as a cardiologist. Furthermore, there are numerous risks involved, for people practicing this type of medicine, and this includes the high rates of deaths for people suffering from the disease (Donohoe Van Den Abbeele, 2000). For instance, people suffering from heart failures have a high chance of dying, and this makes the efforts of an oncologist to be futile. However, scholar disagrees with this fact. This is mainly because of the view that oncologists play a significant role in protecting and preserving the lives of other people, or patients. Furthermore, scholar explains that the high costs depicted in training cardiologists, is based on the high costs of equipments used, and it is beyond the control of medical practitione rs (Elgazzar, 2011). Through these assertions, Biersack Freeman (2007) explains that the best method of solving issues regarding to the training of oncologists, is based on the intervention by the government. This involves lowering taxes on products and tools that can be used for purposes of cardiology. Another barrier to the practice of cardiology is based on the accessibility of the doctors responsible for practicing cardiology (Elgazzar, 2011). It is very expensive to access these doctors, majorly because of the high consultation fees that they charge. Furthermore chances are high that an individual may suffer from depression, majorly because of the high volume of work they are undertaking, and the minimal chances of survival that a patient has (Mettler Guiberteau, 2012). This depression is bad, majorly because it may lead to the development of chronic diseases such as heart attacks, and even the thought of committing suicide. In fields such as oncology, nephrology, and radiology, is also faced with a variety of challenges. These challenges emanates from an increase in the complex medical cases that emerge. However, the British government has realized on the challenges that exist, in regard to the practice of cardiovascular medicine (Cherry, Sorenson Phelps, 2012). Therefore, the government has resorted to resorted to the building of more institutions responsible for training experts in nuclear medicine, and this includes, fields such as radiology, oncology, cardiology, etc. In the year 2005, in a bid of the British government to enhance the practice of nuclear medicine, the government formed an organization referred to as the modernization of medical careers. This movement specifically targeted the field of nuclear medicine, and it sought to enact changes to this field, so that it would be easy for people wishing to pursue a career in it, to pursue it. This is an indication that the British government supports the development of the practice of nuclear medicine. Take for example in the year 2007. To the year 2010, the British government was able to change the curriculum used in teaching nuclear medicine, and reduced the number of years, from four to three years. This applied to cardiovascular medicine. The effect of this, is that it was able to make it possible for people studying cardiology to graduate after three years of intensive training, and hence filling in the gaps, that existed in the shortage of experts in the field of nuclear medicine (Dawson, 2002). Kuwait is also another country that is encouraging the development and practice of nuclear medicine. For instance, the government of Kuwait has established a cancer control unit that is responsible for using nuclear technology for purposes of treating its patients. This is an indication that the government of Kuwait values this field of nuclear medicine, and it has developed measures at promoting its practice. This is specifically, in the treatment of cancer (Ziessman, Omalley, Thrall Fahey, 2014). Methodology: This paper will use both primary and secondary methods of data collection. Under the primary method of data collection, this paper would use both surveys, and structured interviews. For instance in the process of data collection, the researcher would seek to interview various professionals in the United Kingdom and Kuwait, for purposes of finding out the level of satisfaction that they are deriving, through their practice of nuclear medicine. Primary Methods of Research: Interviews: The following are the questions that the researcher would use, for purposes of carrying out an interview, Interview Questions: What are the challenges you are facing, in your pursuit of the field of nuclear medicine? What conditions are making possible for you to practice the field of nuclear medicine? Why did you choose to practice this field of nuclear medicine? What policies do you recommend for purposes of improving the manner which nuclear medicine is practiced, this is with reference to United Kingdom and Kuwait? Who are the major stakeholders in this field of nuclear medicine? What are the qualifications for an individual to pursue a career in nuclear medicine? A detailed and careful answer to the mentioned questions would help in providing information that would meet the aims of this research. There are a number of advantages of using a structured interview for purposes of collecting information/data. One advantage is that the researcher will maintain a face to face conversation, and hence it would be easy to read the body language of the interviewee (Abramson Abramson, 2013). This is for purposes of getting any unwritten and unintended information that the interviewee did not want to convey. Another advantage of using an interview is based on the fact that it is possible to collect the right information and store it, without any distortion. This is by using a digital tape recorder, or a mobile phone. This data would later be used in the process of analyzing the results of the interview. Despite the advantages of using a structured interview, it has various disadvantages. One such disadvantage is the difficulty of finding the interviewee (Jacobsen, 2013). These people are very busy people; hence there is a need of making an appointment, for purposes of getting an interview with them. Furthermore, the appointments may be declined, and restructured, and this may have an effect of tampering with the timetable of the researcher. Another disadvantage is that carrying out an interview is an expensive process, mainly because the interviewee may demand some allowances for taking their time. Surveys: The use of surveys would also be a very useful method of carrying out this research. However, the researcher would use the online surveys for purposes of collecting data for this research. Online surveys are a useful method for data collection, basically because they have the capability of reaching a large number of people (Jacobsen, 2012). The target group for these surveys would be doctors and other people in the field of nuclear medicine. The major disadvantage of the use of online surveys is based on the fact that chances are high that the target population may ignore them, hence failing to get the necessary information needed. To mitigate on this problem, the researcher would design only five questions that would be easy to answer. The following are the five questions contained in the online surveys, What are the barriers of practicing nuclear medicine? What are the enablers of practicing nuclear medicine? Who are the stakeholders in the field of nuclear medicine? How can we overcome the barriers of practicing nuclear medicine? Kindly provide at least two recommendations that can be used to encourage the practice of nuclear medicine. Secondary Methods of Research: The secondary methods of research in use would basically be library research. The researcher would rely on books, journals, and articles for purposes of collecting information on the enables and barriers in the practice of nuclear medicine (Mettler Guiberteau, 2012). Under books, the researcher would analyze various literatures on the practice of nuclear medicine. The focus of the researcher would be, on cardiovascular, radiology, and oncology medicine (Shi, 2008). This is because; these sections of medical practice constantly use the nuclear techno logy for purposes of treating their patients. The researcher would also use journals, which are very important tools of data collection. This is basically because they are peer reviewed, and hence the information contained in them is reliable and accurate. Time Frame: Conclusion: In conclusion, this research method aims at finding out the barriers and enables in the practice of nuclear medicine. It is important to explain that there are a number of careers in this branch of medicine, and these include, cardiology, radiology, oncology, etc. Nuclear medicine involves the use of radioactive elements for purposes of treating an individual, and hence it is an important method of treating chronic diseases. By understanding the various barriers that are affecting an efficient practice of this field of nuclear medicine, then chances are high that proper policies would be enacted, that would help in promoting its practice. References: Top of Form ABRAMSON, J., ABRAMSON, Z. H. (2013). Research methods in community medicine surveys, epidemiological research, programme evaluation, clinical trials. Hoboken, N.J., Wiley. Bottom of Form Top of Form BIERSACK, H. J., FREEMAN, L. M. (2007). Clinical nuclear medicine. Berlin, Springer. Bottom of Form Top of Form CHERRY, S. R., SORENSON, J. A., PHELPS, M. E. (2012). Physics in nuclear medicine. Philadelphia, Elsevier/Saunders. Top of Form DAWSON, C. (2002). Practical research methods: a user-friendly guide to mastering research techniques and projects. Oxford, How To Books. Bottom of Form Top of Form DONOHOE, K. J., VAN DEN ABBEELE, A. (2011). Case-based nuclear medicine. New York, Thieme. Top of Form DONOHOE, K. J., VAN DEN ABBEELE, A. (2000). Teaching atlas of nuclear medicine. New York, Thieme.Bottom of Form Bottom of Form Top of Form ELGAZZAR, A. H. (2011). A concise guide to nuclear medicine. Berlin, Springer. Top of Form FELD, M., ROO, M. D. (2003). History of nuclear medicine in Europe. Stuttgart, Schattauer. Top of Form JACOBSEN, K. H. (2012). Introduction to health research methods: a practical guide. Sudbury, Mass, Jones Bartlett Learning. Bottom of Form Bottom of Form Bottom of Form Bottom of Form Top of Form METTLER, F. A., GUIBERTEAU, M. J. (2012). Essentials of nuclear medicine imaging. Philadelphia, PA, Elsevier/Saunders. Top of Form MONIUSZKO, A., PATEL, D. (2011). Nuclear medicine technology study guide: a technologists review for passing board exams. New York, Springer. s Bottom of Form Top of Form (2004). Orthopedic Nuclear Medicine. Berlin, Heidelberg, Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Top of Form POWSNER, R. A., PALMER, M. R., POWSNER, E. R. (2013). Essentials of Nuclear Medicine Physics and Instrumentation. New York, NY, John Wiley Sons.Bottom of Form Bottom of Form Top of Form PREKEGES, J. (2013). Nuclear medicine instrumentation. Burlington, Mass, Jones Bartlett Learning. Top of Form LAAKE, P., BENESTAD, H. B., OLSEN, B. R. (2007). Research methodology in the medical and biological sciences. Amsterdam, Academic. Bottom of Form Top of Form SHI, L. (2008). Health services research methods. Clifton Park, NY, Thomson/Delmar Learning. Bottom of Form Top of Form ZIESSMAN, H. A., OMALLEY, J. P., THRALL, J. H., FAHEY, F. H. (2014). Nuclear medicine: the requisites. Bottom of Form

The Great Depression :: essays research papers

Introduction It should be noted that all of the cures have been tried and while we seem to be free of Depressions, it's not clear that business cycles have been eliminated. Causes The Stock Market Crash The Stock Market Crash in October of 1929 is often cited as the beginning of the Great Depression, but did it actually cause it? The answer is no. First, the stock price for a particular company merely reflects current information about the future income stream of that company. Thus, it is a change in available information that changes the stock price. When the Fed began to raise interest rates in early 1929, this began the tumble. However, a stock market crash could cause people to increase their liquidity preference which might lead them to hoard money. In the August 1990 issue of The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Christine D. Romer writes that "the negative effect of stock market variability is more than strong enough to account for the entire decline in real consumer spending on durables that occurred in late 1929 and 1930." Hoarding Money People hoard money because they have a liquidity preference. I.e., people want to have their assets in a readily convertible form, such as money. There are several misconceptions about hoarding money. First hoarding is not the same thing as saving. If I put my money into a savings account, that money is lent out to someone else who then spends it. Second, hoarding, by itself, cannot cause a recession or depression. As long as prices and wages drop instantly to reflect the lower amount of money in the economy, then hoarding causes no problems. Indeed, hoarding can even be seen as beneficial to those who don't hoard, since their money will be able to buy more goods as a result of the lower prices. If a country has a gold standard, then hoarding money can make the money supply drop dramatically since a gold standard makes the quantity of money difficult for the government to control. The Gold Standard At the time of the Great Depression,America had a 100% gold standard for its money. This meant that all cash was backed by a government promise to redeem it in a specific amount of gold (at the time, one ounce of gold was redeemable for twenty dollars). Because the amount of money circulating in the economy is wholly dependent on the amount of gold available, the money supply is very rigid.

A Rose for Emily By William Faulkner :: Free Essay Writer

Faulkner’s "A Rose For Emily" is told by a resident of Jefferson, Mississippi, a town in which the Grierson family is the closest thing to true aristocracy. To the outside world it might have appeared that Miss Emily Grierson grew up wealthy and happy, however it was a lonely life for her father ruled Emily with an iron fist, turning away every suitor. No man was good enough for his daughter. The first thing Emily did after her father’s death was find a boyfriend named Homer Barron. She went out driving with Homer, and bought him expensive and personal things like a silver toilet seat and a nightshirt. The towns people assumed she had secretly gotten married because with her father dead, a big social wedding would be in bad taste. Emily became a very stubborn old lady who refused to pay her taxes due to a tale that Colonel Sartoris who was the mayor at the time had told her. According to Sartoris, her father had lent the town some money, and therefore all of her taxes were remitted. Miss Emily would manage to make her self disappear for a certain period of time. This would cause people to talk because no one would know where she was or what she was doing. When her father had died people called and dropped by the house to give Miss Emily their condolences. She told them that he was not dead and that he was still alive. She refused for her father’s body to be disposed of. The town thought she had gone crazy. They talked a lot of Miss Emily’s servant. They made racial comments about him, and noticed when Miss Emily’s house started giving off some sort of bad odor, and complained to Judge Stevens about the smell. For a while Emily convinced herself that the townspeople still respected her. When Emily found out Homer was gay, she realized his company would cause her to be pitied and laughed at. A Rose for Emily By William Faulkner :: Free Essay Writer Faulkner’s "A Rose For Emily" is told by a resident of Jefferson, Mississippi, a town in which the Grierson family is the closest thing to true aristocracy. To the outside world it might have appeared that Miss Emily Grierson grew up wealthy and happy, however it was a lonely life for her father ruled Emily with an iron fist, turning away every suitor. No man was good enough for his daughter. The first thing Emily did after her father’s death was find a boyfriend named Homer Barron. She went out driving with Homer, and bought him expensive and personal things like a silver toilet seat and a nightshirt. The towns people assumed she had secretly gotten married because with her father dead, a big social wedding would be in bad taste. Emily became a very stubborn old lady who refused to pay her taxes due to a tale that Colonel Sartoris who was the mayor at the time had told her. According to Sartoris, her father had lent the town some money, and therefore all of her taxes were remitted. Miss Emily would manage to make her self disappear for a certain period of time. This would cause people to talk because no one would know where she was or what she was doing. When her father had died people called and dropped by the house to give Miss Emily their condolences. She told them that he was not dead and that he was still alive. She refused for her father’s body to be disposed of. The town thought she had gone crazy. They talked a lot of Miss Emily’s servant. They made racial comments about him, and noticed when Miss Emily’s house started giving off some sort of bad odor, and complained to Judge Stevens about the smell. For a while Emily convinced herself that the townspeople still respected her. When Emily found out Homer was gay, she realized his company would cause her to be pitied and laughed at.

Aids in the African American Community

In the mind of the public, the AIDS problem is undoubtedly linked to sexual behaviors and possibly perceived to be a result of promiscuity, nonmonogamous sexual activity, and a well-deserved problem that should affect gay and homosexual people.To a certain extent, efforts to combat AIDS in the African-American communities have also been hindered by the fact that we know very little, beyond stereotypes and myths, about the sexuality of African-Americans. These perceptions have provided much of the confusion about what we should do about HIV/AIDS, or for that matter any of the health problems that are at epidemic levels in the African American communities throughout the United States.It has also been the case that several of the important sources of leadership in the African-American communities have utilized the AIDS epidemic to develop and promote extremely conservative religious and moral agendas and punitive responses toward persons who are already considered to be unfit members of the community.For example, during the first wave of the AIDS epidemic there were several stories within the African-American communities across the United States about ministers who were preaching to their congregations about how AIDS is â€Å"God's punishment for homosexual people who sin.†While there is no way to determine the extent of this attitude among African-American ministers and preachers, approximately one-fourth of the sample (28 percent) of African-American college students was in agreement with this belief.â€Å"There is a long history in the United States of African-Americans and other minority groups being devalued and of having their behavior labeled deviant. In the case of AIDS, the victims are further socially ostracized.A prime example is the fact that Haitians were at one time considered a risk group. Because of this, many Haitians lost their jobs and experienced extreme levels of racial discrimination, not because they had AIDS, but because they were H aitians and therefore linked to AIDS† (Moore and LeBaron, 1986).So, it appears that efforts to combat HIV/AIDS have been hindered by (1) our lack of knowledge about the sexuality of African-Americans, (2) research that has not seriously examined the variability of behavior and attitudes within African-American groups, (3) community and religious leaders who view the AIDS problems as punishment from God, (4) our intolerance of gays and bisexuals within the African American community, and (5) the lack of attention directed at the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases prior to the HIV/AIDS epidemic.If one accepts these observations, then what are we to do in order to develop effective and culturally sensitive AIDS-prevention messages that will reach African-Americans, who are not monogamous, are not abstinent, and who do not use IV-drugs.One solution is to make sure that African-Americans have an adequate understanding of the factors associated with the transmission of HIV/ AIDS. Overall, the pattern of the results indicates that African Americans are very knowledgeable about AIDS, but there appears to be a gap between knowledge and risky sexual behaviors.The development of culturally sensitive AIDS-prevention programs for African-American college age adults may be facilitated by considering some of the insights gained from the study.For example, data suggest the gap between knowledge and risky sexual behavior is likely to be filled with different attitudes and beliefs for males versus females, or individuals with multiple versus non-multiple sexual partners, or individuals with or without a history of STDs, or individuals with or without HIV/AIDS. (Nikitta Foston, 2002).Information uncovered by this investigation revealed that males are less knowledgeable about several factors involved in the transmission of AIDS than females. On the other hand, individuals with multiple partners were more likely to believe that AIDS is caused by bacteria or the same virus that causes VD.Knowledge about the factors associated with the transmission of HIV/AIDS was essentially identical for subjects who practiced unprotected anal intercourse and those subjects who did not. Individuals with HIV/AIDS correctly answered only 55 percent of the questions concerning the transmission of AIDS while those not exposed correctly answered 85 percent of the AIDS knowledge questions.These data suggest that educational information and self-assessment instruments may need to be created for and targeted at specific African-American groups rather than rely on a wide-scale mass media campaign to reach all individuals. One way to accomplish this aim may be to create materials that enable African-Americans to actively question and evaluate their own risk.Perhaps one of the problems that has to be overcome in order to implement such a plan is to identify the explicitness needed in the HIV/AIDS prevention messages for African-Americans who are not monogamous and engagin g in risky sexual behaviors (e.g., anal intercourse).The possible means of how to minimize the gap between knowledge and risky behaviors could go on and on, but the one way that is likely to result in a more favorable outcome is to simply ask the people involved to provide solutions. Seldom have we taken this position around a major public health problem, but what can we lose by asking African-Americans to generate solutions to problems that are the focus of so much human suffering.One of the barriers to effective HIV/AIDS education programs in African-American communities is the fact that the people and organizations have not been encouraged to believe that HIV/AIDS prevention would be more effective when planned, executed, and propagated by members of their own community.In other words, African-American community members are not involved in the empowerment process which stresses both individual determinations over one's own life and strong democratic participation in the life of o ne's community. The notion of empowerment presupposes that African-American community members have the competency to intervene on their own behalf but lack the necessary resources.